A Native Paths

Cultural Heritage and Resource Project

Online Classroom for Student Researchers

& All Who Seek to Learn More about the First Peoples of the Southeast

In her beautifully decorated cradle board

baby Shania carries on the ancient traditions of her 

Creek and Apache ancestors. 

Shania invites you to learn and honor the ways of her People 

on this educational resource page for visitors of all ages.

Some of the material on this page is taken from our booklet,

"Life Ways of the Early Southeastern Muscogee Creek People" 

which we have made available to school resource libraries and other educational facilities at no charge . This carefully researched educational booklet is also available on CD as a PDF file for local school districts and State Departments of Education. It is the outgrowth of years of correspondence with student researchers via our internet outreach and was published with a grant from The Florida Humanities Council.

This entire valuable resource is now available online and accessible to ever more students. 

**In Georgia, teachers can access the PDF file at Georgia Learning Connections  http://www.glc.k12.ga.us/trc/cluster.asp?mode=browse&intPathID=5835 

**In South Carolina,  at your Teacher Resource Center.

This educational website and the Life Ways Booklet are a labor of love 

CD production and all shipping costs are paid for by participating PBT members   

Donations are accepted and appreciated

Ask about Lifeways Book available to public for $20 donation  

Perdido Bay Tribe is a 501(C)(3) Non-Profit 

and 509(a)(2) Public Charity

If you find value in this project and would like to help keep our internet outreach up and running, Your tax-deductible check made to Perdido Bay Tribe can be sent to:

Perdido Bay Tribe

12533 Polonious Parkway

Pensacola, FL 32506

Questions and comments are welcome at perdidobaytribe@comcast.net   

STUDENTS:  While we in no way claim to be authorities, we hope the information you find here will be helpful. Our goal is to assist each student in acquiring a well-rounded view of the Creeks as a creative and resourceful people.  We also welcome the opportunity to assist you one-on-one if you have further questions.

      For further help with your school project write to:

             "Wordweaver" at  perdidobaytribe@comcast.net     

Students, when submitting your questions, please include:

 your first name, school grade, city and state for our records.  

                                               MVTO (Thank you)

     Interesting Facts about Creek History

- The Creeks were deeply respectful of the natural environment. Through ceremony, song and dance they expressed this deep respect. 

The Creeks of the Southeast were not one single people, speaking one language. Rather the Creek Confederacy was made up of a number of independent tribal groups with a common agrarian way-of-life who were united for the common good of all. All major decisions affecting the whole were meant to be made by consensus. Therefore there was no single leader with the authority to make treaties or speak for the whole without consultation.

A New Look at History - Even though this working concept seems perfectly logical in today's United States of America, this division of authority among the Creeks was largely ignored by the early state and federal governments as well as some Creek leaders themselves who ceded vast tracts of land without the knowledge or consent of the People. The consequences were disastrous as the rights and lands of thousands of Creeks were taken away by devious means, leaving them destitute, hated and helpless.  

Southeastern history, taught from the point of view of the victors, still today, often minimizes the wrongs done to the Creeks and focuses only on the angry reprisals and the danger the 'savages' represented to the thousands of 'peaceful settlers' flooding onto Indian lands. Perhaps in fairness and honesty, we should also acknowledge the human suffering of thousands of settled Creek families who had long since adapted to a new way of life, yet were forcibly driven from their homes and prime farm lands onto the fringes of existence and ultimately, for many, out of their ancient homeland entirely. Let us not forget.

Among the Peoples of the Creek Confederacy, were groups speaking several dialects of Muscogean and other languages. We offer these links for an overview and a closer look at each of the separate Southeastern Peoples who made up the Creek Nation and a fair evaluation of the situations they faced from the time of first contact.

http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/georgia/

http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/tribes/creek/creekhist.htm 

http://www.hcc-al-ga.org/folk_index.cfm

 Visit The Muscogee Mother Town at Ochesee

Everyday Life Among The Southeastern Creeks

Part I

Our most Frequently Asked Questions

System of Government

The social system of the Southeastern Creeks centered on local community and would apply with variations to village, tribe, band or clan of the early Creeks. As with many native peoples, there was no centralized authority or body that spoke for the nation as a whole, but rather a loose confederation of independent governments united to live in peace and for the common defense. 

 “For a supposedly primitive people, the Creeks had a surprisingly complex

and well-organized society”                   Winn, The Old Beloved Path

This local,  organized process of self-government (previously unknown to Europeans) gave voice to all and fostered a strong sense of personal responsibility.  During the Mississippian period,  the power of kings or emperors was absolute.  Leadership was passed through family ascension , most notably within the Wind Clan. Later as the People reorganized into a new system,  qualifications for leadership were most certainly based upon proven wisdom, skill and ability.  Once selected, chiefs and headmen were given a high degree of honor and respect, but they never held absolute power. Chiefs were subject to being replaced if they failed to serve the community well though the first democratically elected leaders would not come until the 20^th Century. A village community might have several chiefs who served in different capacities.  For example the principal chief might be responsible for the overall well being of the village, while another might assist in settling small disputes.  The war chief would be selected for his leadership skills in activities related to war and defense. 

Typically, the leadership council of a town met regularly to attend to business of the community. If a  major problem arose, the principal chief might call a council of the entire village. In council, each member would state, without interruption, his ideas and opinions on the subject. After each was heard, the chief would then consider the thoughts of all and make a final judgment.  Punishment for wrong-doing was swift and harsh, and as a result there were few infractions of community laws.  The long-range impact of any decision was always a major consideration.  Before any action was taken, the final decision would be considered by the wise women of the village who would voice their concerns about the well being of the village from their perspective.

 A simple example:  Suppose warriors from another group were encroaching upon the town’s hunting territory which, if not defended, could seriously impact available game for the winter.  At the urging of the young warriors, perhaps eager for the chance to prove themselves in war, a determination might be considered to leave right away to defend the hunting grounds. But when the women hear the plan, they point out that the corn crop is almost ready, and every hand will be needed for the harvest. They recommend a delay until the immediate needs are taken care of, which is respected and the best interests of the community have been served.

Religious Beliefs

Down through the ages, Creek values, world view and way of life have been based on a religious tradition every bit as valuable, complex and sacred as any of the world's religions. Religious expression was an integral part of daily life within the community and guided the Peoples' relationships with one another as well as their respect for every part of the natural world. The belief system of the Creeks requires everyone in the community to live in harmony and keep in balance with nature.

“Because white men thought they had dominion over nature, the Indians viewed them as a profoundly immoral and ignorant people. They thought, in short, that they were savages."      

                                                             Winn, The Old Beloved Path

Ceremony served as a great unifying force within the community and is the most important religious expression among Creek Indian people.  Only those dedicated few who have shown the wisdom, and understanding to earn the honor are given the knowledge to conduct ceremonies. Every part of ceremony, including the fasting, the oration, and the dances are held with the deepest moral and religious significance.

The Green Corn Ceremony which lasts four to eight days, is the most important ceremonial event of the year. It is the annual New Year Harvest Celebration and is held in late summer during the time the new corn becomes ripe. Called, the "Posketv," (or simply "Busk") which means "to fast" the Green Corn Ceremony is regarded as a great peace ceremonial as it marks the time of community renewal.  Among individuals, this is the time when differences are settled, wrongs righted and forgiveness shared.   All transgressions against the well-being of the community,  except murder or other serious crimes, are settled and forgiven.  Thus, the community slate is wiped clean for the next year. 

 Children of One Fire  During the annual Posketv, the ceremonial square is cleaned and a new fire prepared.  The ceremonial Fire is extremely important as a symbol of Creator.  Four logs are placed radiating out from the center in the four cardinal directions.  In solemn ceremony, a new fire is kindled at the center.  As an expression of the ‘oneness’ of the community, coals from the ceremonial fire are then carried to each household where old fires have been extinguished, the hearths cleaned and prepared to begin anew.  The final event of the Green Corn Celebration is a great feast.  At the newly kindled home fires, the women prepare a variety of dishes from the fresh new corn to be enjoyed by all.

A Bounty of Food -- Farming, Hunting and Fishing

  “ . . .Rich land, beautiful, fertile, well watered with fine fields along the rivers.”                 

                         Journal, DeSoto Expedition 1540

Agriculture   

Many centuries before the arrival of the Europeans, ancestors of the Creek people had migrated from the west and settled into a stable agrarian life in what is now the Southeastern United States.  While it is true that the Indians did eventually put to use new ideas and techniques brought by the Europeans, it should be pointed out that long before the introduction of metal tools, domesticated food animals and beasts of burden, Indian farming was thriving. Much to their credit, Indian farmers were successfully cultivating and domesticating wild plant foods with much improvement in quality and quantity. The Indians also had extensive knowledge of medicinal plants and their various uses and took advantage of abundant wild edible plants, fruits, berries, seeds and nuts.

In historical times, the primary crops were what many Indians refer to as the ‘three sisters’ -- corn, beans and squash -- planted together in a technique called ‘hilling.’ When grown together in one mound of soil, the corn serves as a support for the bean vines to grow up on. The large leaves of the low-growing squash plant discourage grass and weeds from growing on the hill.  So, a garden ‘row’ would be made up of many planted hills.

Of the seed crops developed by the ancients, the sunflower is the only one to be continuously grown for its oily seeds. The Creeks also cultivated a wide variety of other fruits, melons and vegetables such as tomatoes, okra and sweet potatoes. Corn was by far the most important crop. It was easily stored and adaptable for use in a wide variety of ways, both fresh and dried.  After the men had cleared land by girdling the trees and  burning the underbrush, crops were planted in community fields and family gardens to be tended primarily by the women.  Household gardens were kept near the home. In addition every family had responsibility for designated portions of the community cornfields.  The work of planting and weeding was done by hand with tools such as hoes made of deer scapula bones with a handle attached and forked planting sticks. The work was hard, but one can well imagine in this community effort a festive atmosphere with much joking and laughter. 

"The Indians do not lack for meat. They kill many deer, hens, rabbits and other game with their arrows. In this they have great skill."

                                                  Journal, DeSoto Expedition 1540

Hunting and Fishing  

Creek men hunted and fished for much of the family’s food and other needs. Using blow guns, bow & arrows and spears, men and boys hunted deer and a variety of small game which would be a delight to all when roasted over a hickory fire -- the first Barbeque in America. While deer was the primary meat source, bear was also prized, not only for the meat, but for the fat which was used as a seasoning for food and for a variety of other purposes.

 Blow guns were used primarily for bringing down small birds.  Our Chief, Bobby Johns Bearheart had many hunting and fishing experiences as a boy which were little different than those of  his ancestors. He tells of going out at night in late fall during the bird migrations to hunt the tired, roosting birds. He and his brother and elders picked their way through the briar thickets around the swamps to the places where the birds were known to roost. Using  blow guns to knock the birds off their perches, they gathered them into bags to take home for his mother to prepare.  

Fish and turtle were an important part of the diet also. Still today there are remnants of ancient V-shaped stone weirs along the rivers and creeks of the deep south where the Creeks once caught fish in large woven traps.  Trapping a winter supply of fish during the annual red-horse sucker run is another experience of his Creek heritage Bearheart remembers as a boy. The Indians understood the habits of the various fish and animals and had many ways of outsmarting them. Every year at a certain time, the red-horse suckers would travel upstream to spawn much as salmon do. The point of the v-shaped weir was open so that it acted like a funnel for the fish. On the night of the migration, a group of men and boys would go to the site of the weir. They would get back away from the bank and build a large campfire, then sit around, tell stories, and wait for the fish. One person was selected to be the watcher. He would sit beside the weir and listen for the sucker's run upstream which made a loud noise. Just as the fish were about to enter the wide opening of the "V," the watcher would shout to the others, then jump in behind the fish splashing and shouting to drive them through the small opening. All the others came running and jumped in too. The largest and strongest held the large basket traps in place as the fish swam through the weir. Before long their baskets were filled and the fishermen all dashed  for the warmth of the fire to shed their wet clothes and dry off.

 Note: In modern times, the red-horse sucker fish has nearly reached extinction in the Southeast due to pollution and damming of rivers and streams. Strong efforts are being made to re-establish the fish in healthier conditions.

Another  fishing method was ‘grappling.’  The Indians knew just where the big old catfish liked to hang out up under the banks of the creeks.   Moving ever so slowly, the fisher would lie on his belly and ease a hand back under the bank. Then with lightening skill he would grab the fish with his bare hand.  Another trick was to take a hollow log and lay it in the water. This provided an attractive hiding place for fish and turtles. Several men and boys would work together to plug the opening at each end of the log. Then they would lift the log onto the bank and dump the fish out.  Returning to these same places over and over, the Indians made many successful catches.

The Creeks were a closely bonded people.  Most of the work they did, from tending the gardens to hunting and fishing was done as a cooperative effort.  The performance of these tasks was  serious work: that of providing food and other needs for the family, but in addition the shared work also served as social events which could be fun and enjoyable.

Industry & Tools For Living

By the 1700's, the Creek people had been associated with Europeans for many years and were already acquiring metal tools  through trade. These metal tools were more durable, but also much heavier so many of the people still preferred to rely on the old bone tools for farming. The Indians used a notched  planting stick  for setting out young plants -- a practice reintroduced to today's onion growers to avoid some of the stresses of stoop labor.  Knives which the Indians made from stone (flint / chert) and bone were important to many tasks. Trade knives were always a real prize. 

Deer were extremely important in native industry.  The Indians used nearly every part of the deer for things they needed.  The leather, of course, served a variety of purposes:  to make winter clothing, moccasins, bags, pouches and leggings to name a few.  Strips of rawhide and sinew were used in tool making to bind things together as we might use rope or string. The antlers and bone were used to make various items such as hoes and other digging tools, fish hooks, needles, and scraping tools for preparing hides. The hooves were boiled to make a strong glue and some were used to make ceremonial rattles which honored the deer.

When the gun arrived, it proved superior to the bow.  Since deer skins were much sought after by the Europeans, the Indians began hunting to trade for guns and other useful items such as iron pots, glass beads and cotton fabrics. This eventually led to the near demise of the deer.  As the deer populations became depleted, the people also became much more dependent on European goods, agriculture and the tools of farming. It took many generations for the deer population  to recover and the Indian way of life was forever changed.

 Domestic Animals & Transportation

Before the arrival of Europeans with their horses, mules and oxen, there were no large animals native to North America that could be used as sources of energy or transportation.  Before the introduction of these animals, the Indians used dugout canoes or walked wherever they went and relied on their own strength, cooperation and ingenuity to accomplish tasks which animals would later perform. Providing for food, shelter & defense was the greatest responsibility of the adults. The work was hard and cooperation essential, but in reality, food was abundant and the Creek people enjoyed far more personal freedom and relaxation time than their European counterparts.

It should be remembered that the introduction of the plow and domestic animals would have a disruptive effect on the Indian way of life and was not necessarily well received.  By the mid 1700’s, with the depletion of the deer population through hunting for the European market, the abundance of food could no longer be counted upon to keep the people fed. (More than 100,000 deerskins were shipped to Europe from the port of Charleston, SC between 1700 and 1750.) Traditionally, women were the primary homemakers, gardeners and gatherers, while the men hunted, fished and defended the community—a division of labor based on cooperative effort. Once the available supply of game had been depleted, a new model was strongly encouraged by government agents to improve the food supply. It required the men to focus entirely on working independent farmsteads as was customary in Europe.  The endless labor of plowing, maintaining fences and caring for domestic animals was not well received as occupations for men.  This resistance to change by a people who had long enjoyed a free and relaxed communal way of life was not understood by the Europeans who often portrayed the resisting Indians as being “lazy and indolent.”

 Houses and Community Structures 

In the traditional Creek village, dating from the Mississippian ancestors of the Creeks, family compounds within a permanent town or village, would be arranged around a central community area. This central area  consisted of several structures adjoining a rectangular ‘chunky yard’ used for games and dances. A smaller square with open shelters called ‘beds’ on all four sides was used during summer for ceremonies and other important events. Each ‘bed’ according to its placement was designated for specific individuals. 

The most dominant structure was a large, round  Council House or ‘Chokofa’  up to 40’ in diameter which served as a multi-purpose winter gathering place. The Chokofa had thick walls of thin poles or bark lashed to a framework of pine logs. The walls were filled inside and out with clay and grass plaster and painted with a whitewash compounded of decayed oyster shell, coarse chalk, or white clay. The cone-shaped roof with an opening at the top  was made of thatched   materials:  dry grasses,  bark, or palmetto fronds depending on what was most readily available. The walls & floors were covered with mats  woven of cane or flexible twigs. A single fire in the center provided light and ample heat even in the coldest winters. Early English traders who described the interior as ‘dark and smoky’ referred to the Chokofa as a ‘hott house.’

The family complex or huti with as many as four rectangular buildings, was also arranged around a central square. It might include a smaller version of the round community chokofa which would have been used as the family's winter house. The center fire of the winter house was also used for cooking. It provided a very warm winter dwelling. The winter house might also have been used for summer guest quarters. Summer houses were rectangles approximately 12 x 22 ft. with gabled roofs covered with bark, grasses, or in very southern areas, palmetto fronds. The walls were covered with woven mats which allowed for cross ventilation. Both the winter and summer houses had built in beds supported by the poles of the outside walls.  Other buildings of a family compound consisted of a thatched roof open-air shelter used for cooking and other family activities, and a two-story granary / storage building built with the same construction techniques.  The Creeks also built log houses of the ‘dog trot’ style which were later adopted by the early settlers.  *The construction of all buildings within a town was a joint effort and could be accomplished rather quickly.

Dress

The ancient Creek People, living in a warm climate, wore a minimum of clothing.  Men wore a breech cloth of deerskin; the women, skirts made from finely  woven plant fibers, such as from the inner bark of the mulberry tree.  Both men and women wore a top made from a long strip of the same fibers which draped over the left shoulder. This woven fiber was described by one in DeSoto’s expedition as being as beautiful as any silk from the orient. For the cooler months, the people wore warm clothing made from well-tanned deerskins with outer wraps of fur hides, woven fiber blankets or feather mantles After contact with Europeans, and the introduction of cotton cloth, the  Creek camp dress we know today, similar to dresses worn by pioneer white women, gradually evolved.  Cotton, calico-type cloth was favored and both women's long, tiered dresses and  men's long shirts would be decorated with flowing ribbons, feathers, beads and shells.  Leggings and moccasins were made of deerskin and often decorated with elaborate beading.  Men often wore turbans -- long strips of fabric wrapped about the head, sometimes decorated with feather plumes.  Turbans could be unwrapped and used as hammocks to sleep off the damp ground and away from unwanted guests. (Bearheart)

Above sketch - Creek chief and family drawn by George Catlin about 1830.

Marriage and Family Life

The life ways of the early Creeks were community based.  Every Creek was a member of one of several clans and family ties were clan-based. Marriages were required to be with someone from a different clan. In Road To Disappearance, Debo gives detailed description of early Creek marriage protocol which illustrates how the complex family structure served to protect the interests of women and children.  In brief: Marriages were sometimes arranged by the clan, but usually the man selected his own wife. A protocol  was followed whereby female members of the man’s family first approached the women of the girl’s family. They in turn referred the proposal to the woman’s brothers and maternal uncles. If the men of  her family approved, word was sent back to the man’s family.  The man then sent presents to the women of the girl’s family and if they were accepted, the marriage was consummated.

The girl remained with her family and the man went to live with her as husband and wife. But the marriage was not permanent until he had proven himself to be an able provider.  To do this, he must have planted and gathered a crop, brought her a supply of game and provided her a house. Like nearly every labor performed by the Creeks, the house would be constructed as a communal enterprise under the direction of the town officials. During this time of temporary marriage, usually of some months, the couple could separate at will.  Since the Green Corn Ceremony occurred at the time of the corn harvest, final recognition of the marriage was often celebrated as part of the sacred ceremonies.  If a man neglected to work in her cornfield during succeeding years, a wife was released from her marriage obligations. Divorce could be secured by either party but was rare in families with children. In the case of divorce, the children and the property remained in the possession of the wife.

Children were members of their mother’s clan. The discipline and education of children was the responsibility of the mother and her family. An older maternal clan uncle or grandfather would teach a young boy the things he needed to learn rather than his father.  While the father was responsible for providing food and protection for his children, and would be treated respectfully in his home, his role as a teacher and mentor would be on behalf of his sisters’ children.

Indian family life was much more relaxed and less structured than in modern times. Before eating and other activities, the day would begin at dawn with a bath in the nearest river or stream. Meals were not necessarily  eaten at a particular time when all would come together, however the largest meal would have been prepared by early afternoon.  Food would be kept ready so that anyone could find something to eat when hungry.  A thick, rich gruel made of corn called ‘Sofkee’ was a favorite for everyday and special occasions and would be kept on hand at all times. 

Demonstration Idea: A facsimile of traditional Sofkee can be made from canned hominy and makes a good addition to any student presentation.  In a pan, mash and heat the hominy, including the liquid  and a pinch of baking soda.  Pass out small portions in a cup with ice-cream spoon for sampling.

Education and Children’s Activities

Among the Creeks, the division of labor for men and women was not unlike that of many other cultures. Education for children was centered around ‘learning by doing’ the skills they would need to participate as adults in their society.  This was incorporated in the children’s many hours of play.  From an early age, boys began developing the physical and mental skills they would need by learning to make and use weapons and tools. From the elders boys learned the ways of the wild animals and how to use this knowledge for successful hunting.  Competitive games provided the means to develop hunting skills.  Likewise, girls learned the skills they would need by playing and working alongside the older women of their mother’s clan. This might include gathering and learning about the various wild plants used for food, seasoning and  medicine as well as the many other tasks assigned to women such as gardening and food preparation, tanning hides, sewing garments, basket and pottery making.

Health

Before the introduction of European infectious diseases, from smallpox to measles and the common cold, for which the Indians had no resistance, the people of the Southeast enjoyed splendid health. The problems most observed by early European students of the Creek way of life were ‘rheumatism’ and intestinal parasites. Creek medicine men had a host of herbal remedies for most ailments which seemed to have served very well. An excellent diet of fruits, vegetables and wild game, as well as constant physical activity made for slim, healthy bodies with little disease.

Sports & Recreation

The Creeks enjoyed competitive sports and games. Children played many games which also served to hone their skills with weapons--such as competitions with bow and arrows or blow guns which they made themselves.  Boys wrestled and held foot races and tried to beat one another throwing small spears through rolling hoops. They also played games similar to rolling dice and a board game similar to Pachisi. Everyone loved games of chance.

Chunky was a favorite competitive sport. A small stone disc would be sent on its way rolling down the chunky yard. Competitors would throw spears or shoot arrows calculated to land nearest the point where the chunky stone would stop. Many prized possessions might be wagered on the outcome of the game.

Indian ball play, or stick ball, was the most important sport among older children and adults.  This extremely rough ball game is similar to La Crosse, which was patterned after it.   Players used two sticks with a woven oval-shaped cup on one end to propel a small deer-hide ball down the field and into a goal. There could be 50 or more players on each team in this wild and wooly game referred to as ‘The Little Brother of War.’ For this ball play, the people had a passion rivaling today’s sports fans.  Injuries were common as the teams of different towns competed to the cheers of the people they represented. Usually this was friendly competition, in fact it was considered ‘unmanly’ to show anger during the game. Many times, however, the ball game held much greater significance.  Major disputes between towns or neighboring clans were often settled by the outcome the ball game. 

* A special thank you to artist, Buck Woodard for illustrations in Creek Life Ways 

Everyday Life Among The Southeastern Creeks

Part II Click Here

Traditional Creek Stories, Song, Languages &

Outstanding Human Achievements

More resources in our News and Information Archives

Finding Real Meaning in Southeastern Native American Ancestry  

Understanding The Old Ways and Their Modern Counterparts